The Three Realms of Life in the First Passage of the Analects

If one were to ask about the most significant figure to have influenced China, the answer would most certainly be Confucius. For a book that has exerted the most profound influence, the title most frequently mentioned would be the Analects of Confucius. The Analects records Confucius’ remarks from over 2,500 years ago. However, the question must be raised: does this book still play a role in our lives today? Nowadays, there is a prevalent concern about how to study well, how to treat friends well, and how to understand oneself. The first passage of the Analects happens to address these issues.

子曰：“学而时习之，不亦说乎？有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？”

The Master said: “Having studied, to then repeatedly apply what you have learned—is this not a source of pleasure? To have friends come from distant quarters—is this not a source of enjoyment? To go unacknowledged by others without harboring frustration—is this not the mark of an exemplary person (junzi 君子)? (Analects 1.1, quotations from the Analects cited in this article are taken from the philosophical translation by Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont, Jr.)

Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont,

Jr., The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation

This passage discusses the attitude of a junzi towards learning, making friends, and whether others can understand oneself. It encourages people to practice learning regularly, to welcome their friends warmly, and to believe that even if they are not acknowledged by others, they should not harbor resentment against tian天 (heaven) or blame others, which is the true cultivation of a junzi. However, upon serious contemplation of these three parts, we cannot help but think of three critical questions: 1) Why are they placed in the opening passage of the Analects? 2) Is there a connection between them? 3) If such a connection does exist, what might it be? All of these require careful consideration, and a proper understanding of this passage is crucial to gaining an insight into the entirety of the Analects and Confucius’ philosophy.

As is well known, the Analects was compiled by the disciples of Confucius. According to the records in the “Yiwen zhi” 艺文志 (Treatise on Literature) of the Hanshu 汉书 (usually translated as the History of Han):

《论语》者，孔子应答弟子、时人及弟子相与言，而接闻于夫子之语也。当时弟子各有所记，夫子既卒，门人相与辑而论纂，故谓之《论语》。

The material of the Analects came from the dialogues that Confucius engaged in with his disciples and contemporaries, and their conversations were recorded. After the passing of the Master, these records were compiled by his disciples into a collection known as the Analects.

In fact, Confucius left behind much material from his teachings and conversations with others, and the contents of the Analects are only part of it. According to Kong Anguo 孔安国 (150-90 BC) in his postface to the Kongzi jiayu 孔子家语:

《孔子家语》者，皆当时公卿士大夫及七十二弟子之所谘访交相对问言语也。既而诸弟子各自记其所问焉，与《论语》《孝经》并时。弟子取其正实而切事者，别出为《论语》，其余则都集录之，名之曰《孔子家语》。

The Kongzi jiayu contains discussions in which noblemen, officials at all levels, and the 72 main disciples of Confucius seek counsel and converse with him. Some disciples subsequently recorded their conversations, dating to the same period as the Lunyu 论语 (Analects) and the Xiaojing孝经 (Classic of Family Reverence). They selected the items they felt were the most authentic and sensible and separated them off into the Lunyu. The items leftover were collected into their own volume, which was named the Kongzi jiayu. (Quotations from the Kongzi jiayu cited in this article are taken from the translation by Brian Bruya and Li Wenwen)

Portrait of Kong Anguo

That is to say, the Kongzi jiayu (hereafter referred to as the Jiayu) and the Analects are both classics that represent Confucius’ thoughts, as they share a common source. However, the concise nature of the Analects and its lack of necessary background references make it difficult to examine Confucius’ precise views on certain issues. Using the Jiayu as a reference can deepen our understanding of Confucius’ philosophy and provide new insights into the study of ancient Chinese civilization. It is particularly noteworthy that in compiling the Analects, Confucius’ disciples took what they considered to be the most authentic and sensible, and arranged the passages in a certain order, around a certain theme, following internal connections, rather than randomly.

The first passage of the Analects corresponds to the theme of Confucius’ life. Confucius remarked, “Having studied, to then repeatedly apply what you have learned—is this not a source of pleasure?” To understand his pursuit, we should clarify what Confucius had learned and applied. On this point, we can get some clues from the last chapter of the Analects—“Yao Yue” 尧曰. The central focus of this chapter revolves around the dao of enlightened rulers in ancient China, particularly Yao 尧, Shun 舜, Yu 禹, King Cheng Tang 成汤王, King Wen of Zhou 周文王, King Wu of Zhou 周武王, and Duke of Zhou 周公. In the final passage, Confucius stated: “Someone who does not understand the propensity of circumstances (ming 命) has no way of becoming an exemplary person (junzi 君子).” The opening and concluding passages of the Analects resonate with each other, which indicates that Confucius believed that it was his mission to inherit and carry forward this tradition and to implement it in concrete social life through study, reflection,and practice.In other words, Confucius did not travel for leisure, but to fulfill the dao of the sage kings of antiquity. He believed that the ritual system of the Zhou dynasty had inherited the main structure and basic spirit of the Xia and Shang cultures, and regarded it as an ideal social system; therefore, it was his goal to restore the Zhou rituals. The three sentences in the first verse of the Analects represent the three realms of the life of Confucius in pursuing his ideals.

Portrait of the Duke of Zhou

1. To Strive Diligently under Hopeful Circumstances: “Having Studied, to then Repeatedly Apply What You Have Learned—Is This Not a Source of Pleasure?”

It can be said that almost everyone longs for recognition, understanding, and support from others to realize their ideals, and Confucius was no exception. Confucius was eager to see his knowledge put to use; if his ideas were accepted by society, he would feel joy from the bottom of his heart—the highest level of happiness for him. Indeed, there was such a pleasant time in Confucius’ life. The first chapter of the Jiayu—“Xiang Lu” 相鲁 provides a record of Confucius’ appointment as governor. Some of the details are as follows:

孔子初仕，为中都宰，制为养生送死之节：长幼异食，强弱异任，男女别涂，路无拾遗，器不雕伪。为四寸之棺、五寸之椁，因丘陵为坟，不封不树。行之一年，而西方之诸侯则焉。定公谓孔子曰：“学子此法以治鲁国，何如？”孔子对曰：“虽天下可乎，何但鲁国而已哉！” 于是二年，定公以为司空。乃别五土之性，而物各得其所生之宜，咸得厥所。先时，季氏葬昭公于墓道之南，孔子沟而合诸墓焉，谓季桓子曰：“贬君以彰己罪，非礼也。今合之，所以揜夫子之不臣。”由司空为鲁大司寇，设法而不用，无奸民。

In Confucius’ first official position, he was governor of the town of Zhongdu. In this position, he effectively regulated important aspects of life—elders and children were fed according to their distinct needs; the strong and the weak were accorded labor appropriate to their abilities; men and women maintained their distance in public; items left behind were let lie; crafts were simply adorned; and the dead were accorded a dignified burial, with inner caskets four inches thick and outer caskets five inches, interred against hillsides as burial mounds, but without mounds of their own, nor marked with a sapling. After one year, even nobles from states to the west were following his lead.

Duke Ding of Lu said to Confucius, “How about if we spread your methods throughout Lu?” Confucius replied, “It could be the whole land, why restrict ourselves to Lu?”

And so, the following year, the duke named Confucius Minister of Public Works. Confucius identified five different kinds of terrain, thus allowing different kinds of crops to be grown according to their distinct requirements, and all flourished.

Previously, Ji Pingzi had had Duke Zhao buried to the south of the royal burial ground. Confucius had the duke’s body exhumed and buried alongside the other royal tombs. He said to Ji Huanzi, “To belittle a sovereign in such a way, thereby exposing one’s own culpability, is a violation of ritual propriety. Having now discreetly returned him, we have concealed your father’s disloyalty.”

Confucius was subsequently promoted to Minister of Justice, in which position he created laws that only rarely needed to be applied and so did not interfere in the common people’s lives. (Kongzi jiayu 1.1)

In this chapter, Confucius is depicted as an effective leader who can hold his own at the highest levels of officialdom. Li礼 (ritual propriety) was his desired modus operandi, through which the needs of all levels of society would be met, and a stable, peaceful social order could be achieved. This successful practical experience made Confucius more confident in implementing the dao of the sage kings, which he considered the most felicitous.

2. Facing Disappointing Situations, Confucius Never Gave Up. He Searched for Like-Minded Rulers to Achieve His Ideals: “To Have Friends Come from Distant Quarters—Is This Not a Source of Enjoyment?”

Confucius saw the Zhou rituals as an ideal social system and believed that restoring them was essential for transmitting the dao of the former kings. An emphasis on hierarchical social structures is crucial to maintaining world order within this ritual framework. Confucius adhered to this belief and practiced it himself. One iconic event was when Confucius led his disciples to destroy the city walls of the Three Hereditary Families (the Jisuns, the Mengsuns, and the Shusuns) in the state of Lu. He believed that, in the ancient political structure, high officials did not quarter armed soldiers, nor did cities other than the capital have their own fortified defenses. Since the Three Families violated these norms, Confucius advised Duke Ding of Lu to have their city walls demolished, which ultimately strengthened the central government and weakened the Three Families. With the ruler in the position of honor and the ministers in the position of service, government reforms were carried out on a large scale (Kongzi jiayu 1.3). A version of this story appears in the Zuozhuan 左传 (usually translated as the Zuo Commentary to the Spring and Autumn Annals), but with different details. In the Zuozhuan, Confucius’ role is much minimized; and after two walls (of the Jisuns and Shusuns) were destroyed, and it came time to dismantle the walls of the Mengsun family, its leader resisted the Duke of Lu’s forces for several months; the Duke finally retreated, leaving the Mengsuns in control, so the walls remained standing. “The Hereditary Household of Confucius” in the Shiji 史记 (usually translated as Records of the Grand Historian) closely follows the Zuozhuan version. Nevertheless, although tearing down the walls of the Three Families did increase Confucius’ political influence, it also nearly ended his political career in the state of Lu for violating the interests of the nobles.

“Dismantling of the Fortified Cities of the Three Hereditary Families,”

An Illustrated Biography of Confucius

There was one more thing that could not be ignored. When Confucius was serving in the Lu government, the state of Qi became concerned about his potential effectiveness in governance, fearing that Lu might rise to become a superpower. To weaken the Lu government from within, Qi sent 80 beautiful singing girls along with 40 groups of horses as gifts to Lu. The girls and horses were displayed outside the southern gate of Lu’s capital. Ji Huanzi (head of the Jisun family, Prime Minister of Lu) dressed himself in civilian clothes, and went to inspect the gifts several times. He then had Duke Ding of Lu go and watch their performance for whole days under the pretense of inspection, thereby neglecting government affairs. Zilu (one of Confucius’ most devoted disciples) suggested to his Master, “I think it would be a good time to leave now.” Confucius replied, “It is time for Lu’s jiaoji 郊祭 (a ceremony in which the duke was to conduct sacrifices to heaven and earth). If they go through with it, and the portions of meat from the sacrificial animal are properly presented to the high officials, then it will indicate that the established customs have not been completely ruined, and we can refrain from leaving.” Unfortunately, the duke performed the ceremony hastily and did not reward his high officials with the sacrificial meat. So disappointed was he in his duke that Confucius left not only the government of Lu, but also the state of Lu. (See Kongzi jiayu 19.7)

“Singing Girls and Fine Horses Sent as a Gift to Lu from Qi,”

An Illustrated Biography of Confucius

Since Confucius could not realize his ideals in Lu, what could he do? He chose to persevere and never give up on his aspirations. This attitude is well captured in his words, “To have friends come from distant quarters—is this not a source of enjoyment?”

Confucius’ political career in Lu came to a temporary end, while a new journey began. In fact, Confucius set out to travel through the various states in search of like-minded rulers to realize the dao of the ancient sage kings. If there really was a wise ruler in this vast land who embraced Grand Unity (datong 大同), where the great dao 大道 flourished, impartiality prevailed, capable and virtuous people were chosen to lead, trust among people was fostered, and strong relations were built—then it would not matter to Confucius whether he was invited by that ruler or whether he took the initiative to approach him. They would give him the same joy!

3. In Desperation, Confucius Believed He Had Received Understanding and Validation from Tian: “To Go Unacknowledged by Others Without Harboring Frustration—Is This Not the Mark of an Exemplary Person?”

A popular saying goes today, “The ideal may appear pleasantly ‘plump’ with our hopes for the future, yet we often find the reality to be quite ‘skinny’ with the challenges it presents.” 2,500 years ago, Confucius faced circumstances that could also be described as “skinny.” It was a time of chaos. The king of Zhou was losing his authority to command the nobles in various states, and the lords were at war. The nobles feared losing their wealth and land, while the lives of the common people were often threatened by swords and clubs. As a result, the conscientiousness and trustworthiness that Confucius advocated seemed somewhat pallid and less effective under such chaotic conditions.

While one’s behavior is indeed a matter of one’s own, life and death often hinge on circumstances beyond one’s control. How should one deal with the gap between ideal and reality? Confucius wisely observed:

芝兰生于深林，不以无人而不芳。

君子修道立德，不为穷困而改节。

Angelica and orchids grow in the deep forest and waft their fragrance without waiting for people to come. Having cultivated oneself and established a moral foundation, a junzi does not allow straitened circumstances to destroy his standards. (Kongzi jiayu 20.1)

人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？

To go unacknowledged by others without harboring frustration—is this not the mark of an exemplary person (junzi 君子)? (Analects 1.1)

Kongzi jiayu 20.1

These two quotes from the Jiayu and the Analects can be used as commentaries on each other. From Confucius’ perspective, the cultivation of a junzi’s moral vision resembles the natural growth of angelica and orchids in the deep forest. It is an inherent disposition, often referred to as tianming 天命 (the endowment of tian) within the Confucian tradition, which he believed he himself possessed. In moments of despair, Confucius was convinced that he had received recognition and endowment from tian, which he then transformed into a profound self-validation. The statement Confucius made when he was surrounded in Kuang further supports this point. He said:

文王既没，文不在兹乎？天之将丧斯文也，后死者不得与于斯文也；天之未丧斯文也，匡人其如予何？

With King Wen (文) long dead, does not our cultural heritage (wen 文) reside here in us? If tian 天 were going to destroy this legacy, we latecomers would not have had access to it. If tian is not going to destroy this culture, what can the people of Kuang do to me! (Analects 9.5)

Confucius had an unshakable belief in living alongside tian, which profoundly shaped his unique understanding of life and unleashed immense power. Unlike the common desire for recognition from others, he found certainty through his understanding of his ming from tian, which allowed him to be neither anxious nor upset about not being acknowledged by others.

“Surrounded by the People of Kuang,”

An Illustrated Biography of Confucius

With respect to the pursuit of ideals in reality, people often adopt various methods and attitudes when confronted with different circumstances. The first passage of the Analects clearly delineates three approaches of Confucius, which are as follows: 1) To diligently strive in hopeful circumstances: “Having studied, to then repeatedly apply what you have learned—is this not a source of pleasure?” 2) In the face of disappointing situations, Confucius sought out like-minded rulers across states to achieve his ideals: “To have friends come from distant quarters—is this not a source of enjoyment?” 3) In moments of desperation, Confucius believed he had received understanding and validation from tian, which enabled him to remain free from anxiety or distress about not being recognized by others: “To go unacknowledged by others without harboring frustration—is this not the mark of an exemplary person?” Confucius’ ability to maintain a sense of joy, happiness, and peace throughout his journey in pursuit of his ideals, regardless of whether he encountered hopeful, disappointing, or even despairing circumstances, truly reflects his sagacity. Confucius has thus become a spiritual exemplar for all human beings. The Analects, a canonical text of Confucianism, provides a comprehensive approach to attaining a life of profound wisdom.