Kuafu as Buri: Bridging Ancient Worlds - A Study of Transcultured Confucianism through Mythological Narratives

Thisarticle delves into the profound impact of Confucianism on the cultural,historical, and philosophical landscape of Chinese society, highlighting itsrole beyond the realms of governance and education to influence literary,historical, and mythological narratives. It argues that Confucianism has beeninstrumental in shaping the literary and mythological landscapes, engaging inwhat is termed “Confucianisation,” a process that intertwines moral philosophywith cultural narratives, including myths (Yao 2000; Zhang 2015; Li 2010; Wang2017). This integration underscores the significance of a global discourse thatconnects ancient myths with contemporary perspectives, fostering a deeperappreciation of ancient narratives (Hansen 2019; Kim 2021).

Focusingon the intricate relationship between Chinese mythology and Confucian doctrine,this article illuminates how Confucian thought has influenced theinterpretation of mythological tales, particularly the story “Kuafu 夸父 Chasing the Sun.” Traditionallyseen as an allegory of human ambition and hubris, this story was reinterpretedto reflect Confucian values, suggesting a symbolic conflict between the watergod Gong Gong 共工 and the sun god Zhuanxu颛顼 (a grandson of theYellow Emperor 黄帝), symbolising theclash between chaos and order (Chen 2005; Sun 2008; Zhao 2012; Liu 2014; Zhou2016).

Moreover,this inquiry posits that the story of Kuafu’s pursuit of the sun and itsunderlying themes of transformation and cosmic balance have transculturalsignificance, as seen in the adaptation of Gong Gong into Buri in Norsemythology, highlighting the fluidity and interconnectedness of mythologicalnarratives across cultures.

Byre-evaluating the story of Kuafu within a broader Confucian context, thisthesis aims to bridge the gap between ancient mythological understanding andcontemporary philosophical discourse, offering a nuanced exploration of theenduring influence of Confucianism on the interpretation of ancient myths andtheir relevance in today’s globalised cultural conversations.

Thestudy of Chinese mythology, extending from its ancient origins to contemporaryinterpretations, illustrates an extensive evolution and significant culturalimpact. Scholars such as McNeal (2012) and Lewis (2009) examine its formationand progression, complemented by Birrell’s (1993 and 1994) in-depth analyses ofmythological narratives. Haar (1998) investigates the role of mythology withinthe Chinese triads, while Du Zhengsheng (1989) and Yang Lihui (2005) assess itshistorical and cultural relevance. Further, Akhmetbek (2022) highlights itsenduring influence over time.

Embeddedin the fabric of Chinese culture, Confucianism profoundly shapes societalvalues and structures, as discussed by Li Dongmei (2020). Scholars like WangChaohua (2012) critique the modern revival of Confucianism, arguing for itspolitical construction, while others emphasize its sustained impact on familialand societal ethics (Waring 2009).

Collectively,this body of work underlines the critical role of Confucianism and mythology inshaping China’s cultural identity, revealing a vibrant interaction acrosshistorical epochs. In particular, the investigation into the Kuafu mythprovides a lens through which to examine the transcultural connections ofChinese mythology, revealing the potential for a shared global discourse. Thisresearch contributes to the scholarly narrative and seeks to bridge culturaldivides by highlighting the universality of human experience through mythology.By juxtaposing the Kuafu myth with analogous global myths, this study initiatesa conversation about universal themes of perseverance, ambition, and humanity’sconnection to nature, and advocates for a more interconnected and empatheticglobal community.

Portrait of the Yellow Emperor

Studyingthe Kuafu myth through comparative mythology and hermeneutics highlights itstranscultural significance and adaptability across cultural landscapes.Comparative mythology, as discussed by Leeming (2014), facilitates anunderstanding of universal themes in human storytelling and allows for anuanced comparison of myths across different cultures. This analysis shedslight on common archetypes and variations, providing insights into thecollective human experience. As Gadamer (1989) articulated, philosophicalhermeneutics provides a framework for interpreting myths beyond their temporaland cultural origins, promoting a dialogue that bridges historical and culturaldivides.

Furthermore,applying Confucian principles provides a unique perspective for interpretingmyths in East Asian contexts, elucidating moral and philosophical dimensions(Yao 2000). This approach reveals the influence of Confucian thought oncultural narratives and enhances the understanding of myths like Kuafu.Examining these stories through the lens of Confucianism gains insights intothe societal values and ethical teachings transmitted through generations, andunderscores the deep connection between mythology and cultural identity.

AncientChinese and Norse mythologies feature a structured, tripartite cosmos thatsymbolises a universal vision of a layered universe. This division is pivotalin their cultural narratives, and each employs unique symbols and frameworks toconvey similar cosmic structures and interconnected themes.

InNorse mythology, the cosmos is represented by Yggdrasil, a massive, sacred ashtree that embodies the central organising principle of their cosmological view.Yggdrasil’s roots and branches reach out to connect the various realms ofexistence, symbolising a network that spans from the divine to the earthly andthe underworld. The tree has three primary roots, each connected to a differentrealm that grants access to unique wisdom and power: one reaches the Well ofUrd, the gathering place of the gods; another extends into Jotunheim, near thewisdom-giving waters of Mimir; and the third descends into Niflheim, close tothe life-sustaining spring of Hvergelmir. The tree connects nine realms, suchas Asgard and Midgard, each representing different aspects of the universe andinhabited by various beings, from gods to mythical creatures such as the eagleand Ratatoskr, the messenger squirrel. Yggdrasil thus not only functions as theaxis of the universe, but also highlights the cyclical nature of life and theinterconnectedness of all cosmic entities.

Similarly,in Chinese mythology, the Kunlun Mountains stand as the sacred centre of theworld, connecting heaven, earth, and the underworld. Revered as the home ofimmortals and gods, it is a spiritual and physical nexus that links the divinewith the mundane. The mountains are often depicted as a paradise, home tomythical creatures and lush gardens, symbolising spiritual enlightenment andthe eternal cycle of life and death.

BothYggdrasil and the Kunlun Mountains embody the concept of the Axis Mundi intheir respective mythologies, serving as central links between the celestialand terrestrial realms. They illustrate the deeply interconnected nature of theuniverse and emphasise life, growth, and spiritual pursuits. These sites arethe abodes of deities and the focal points where divine influences intersectwith the earthly realm, enriching their cultural significance and mysticalappeal.

Despiteoriginating from different cultural backgrounds, both Yggdrasil and the KunlunMountains reflect similar human concerns with the unity, order, and sacrednessof the cosmos. Their narratives stress the world as interconnected andsanctified, with some aspects as fundamental anchors within the universalfabric. Such themes underscore shared human values and the quest for understandingand immortality, illustrating how ancient mythologies tap into universal ideasthat transcend specific cultural or historical contexts.

Itis essential to delineate the similarities between Chinese and Norsemythologies to demonstrate their inherent connection. The overlappingmythological characters in both traditions provide evidence for thisconnection. Chinese mythology presents one narrative, while Norse mythologyoffers a complementary perspective that fills in the gaps left by the Chinesetales. We can use this link to explore the relationship between Kuafu and Burifurther by identifying commonalities.

Thisexploration of the characterization of Kuafu in Chinese mythology argues for aprofound recontextualisation of Kuafu, not only as an individual giant, but asa symbol of the entire Kuafu clan, a lineage of giants deeply rooted in ancienttimes. The study argues for the necessity of broadening our interpretive lensbeyond the limited references found in classical Chinese literature, which,prior to and during the Han dynasty, scarcely mention Kuafu. This investigationchallenges the post-Han reduction of Chinese mythology to a narrower,geographically confined narrative and advocates for a return to the globalperspective that ancient Chinese mythology initially embraced. Central to thisperspective is the ancient cosmology that envisioned deities and humanscoexisting, with the mythical Kunlun Mountains serving as the epicentre of theworld (Wang 2024).

Arguingthat the scant references to Kuafu have contributed to a limited understandingof this mythological entity, this paper emphasises the importance ofinterpreting Kuafu as a collective representation of an ancient giant race,thus restoring the Kuafu clan to its rightful place within the mythologicalnarrative. This reconceptualisation challenges the diminished post-Hanportrayal of Chinese mythology and highlights the shared human heritage thattranscends modern geographical and cultural divisions.

Inaddition, this study delves into the lineage of the Kuafu clan, tracing itsorigins back to the Kuiwei 魁隗 branch of the YanEmperor’s 炎帝 tribe and its descentfrom Gong Gong, the Water Lord of the Zhurong 祝融 era. This analysis illuminates the transformation of this lineage, particularlyafter their defeat by Shennong 神农, which marks a pivotalmoment in their mythic and historical narrative.

Byexploring the interconnectedness of global mythologies, this paper drawsparallels with Nordic traditions, enriching our understanding of Chinesemythology and emphasising the universality of mythological themes. Gong Gong’sevolution from a minister of Emperor Yao 尧 to a figure associated with cosmic upheavals embodies the ancient attempt tounderstand the forces of nature and their impact on human civilisation, andfurther underscores the rich narrative arc within Chinese mythology that rangesfrom the divine to the terrestrial realms.

Accordingto “The 17th Year of Duke Zhao’s Reign” of the Zuo Commentary to the Spring andAutumn Annals, Gong Gong is associated with water, just as the Yellow Emperoris with clouds and the Yan Emperor with fire. Legends describe Gong Gong ashaving a human face and the body of a snake, with red hair.

“The 17th Year of Duke Zhao’s Reign,” The

Zuo Commentary to the Spring and Autumn Annals

Therivalry between Gong Gong and Zhuanxu culminated in events that shaped thecosmological and terrestrial order (jueditiantong绝地天通), such as the separation ofheaven and earth and the great flood, highlighting the thematic underpinningsof conflict and resolution in mythology. Gong Gong’s subsequent actions,particularly the floods that plagued the descendants of the Yellow Emperor andhis exile to Youzhou 幽州, signify the recurringtheme of exile and redemption in mythic narratives.

Ina chapter of the Huainanzi entitled “Celestial Patterns,” it is recorded that:“In ancient times Gong Gong and Zhuanxu fought, each seeking to become thethearch. Enraged, they crashed against Mount Buzhou; Heaven’s pillars broke;the cords of Earth snapped. Heaven tilted in the northwest, and thus the sunand moon, stars and planets shifted in that direction. Earth became unfull inthe southeast, and thus the watery floods and mounding soils subsided in thatdirection.” (Huainanzi 3.1, translated by John S. Major) Another Huainanzi chapter with the title “Basic Warp,” records: “In the time of Shun, Gong Gongstirred up the torrents and [unleashed] floods of water, extending as far asHollow Mulberry.” (Huainanzi 8.6, translated by John S. Major) A reference tosuch a theme is also found in the book of Han Feizi:“ When Yao wanted totransfer the rule over All-under-Heaven to Shun... Likewise, Gong Gongremonstrated with him, saying, ‘Nobody should transfer the rule overAll-under-Heaven to a commoner.’ Yao never listened to him but also raised anarmy and banished Gong Gong to the city of Youzhou.” (Chapter 34, Han Feizi,translated by W. K. Liao) The Mencius gives a similar account: “Shun banishedGong Gong to Youzhou, and Huan Dou to Mount Chong; he banished San Miao toSanwei and put Gun to death on Mount Yu. On these four culprits being punished,the people in the Empire bowed to his will with admiration in their hearts.That was because he punished the wicked.” (Mencius 5A3, translated by D. C.Lau) Compared to the “Canon of Yao” in the Book of Documents, this account addsthe phrase “punished the wicked,” portraying Shun as consummate and virtuosicand Gong Gong as evil and immoral.

Afterthat point, there is no further record of Gong Gong. However, he is mentionedin “The Classic of Regions Within the Seas” in the Classic of Mountains andSeas:“ Ting Ao, daughter of the Chishui River, was the wife of the Yan Emperor.She gave birth to Yan Ju. Yan Ju gave birth to Jie Bing. Jie Bing gave birth toXi Qi. Xi Qi gave birth to Zhu Rong. Zhu Rong came down on earth to live besidethe Jiang River. Zhu Rong gave birth to Gong Gong the god. Gong Gong gave birthto Shu Qi. Shu Qi’s head was square and the crown of his head was flat. Shu Qirestored the rich grainlands so that the Jiang River area became habitable.Gong Gong gave birth to Hou Tu. Hou Tu gave birth to Ye Ming. Ye Ming gavebirth to Years, ten plus two offspring in all.” (Book 18, The Classic ofMountains and Seas)

Here,Hou Tu 后土 refers to the goddessof the underworld. In addition to giving birth to Ye Ming 噎鸣, Hou Tu also bore Xin 信, who in turn begat Kuafu. This isrecounted in detail in “The Classic of the Great Wilderness: The North” in the Classic of Mountains and Seas: “In the middle of the Great Wilderness there isa mountain. Its name is Mount Chengduzaitian. There is someone on thismountain. His ear ornaments are two yellow snakes, and he is holding two yellowsnakes. His name is Kuafu. Hou Tu gave birth to Xin. Xin gave birth to Kuafu.Kuafu’s strength knew no bounds. He longed to race against the light of thesun. He caught up with it at the Yu Valley. He scooped some water from thegreat river to drink, but it wasn’t enough. He ran towards the Great Marsh, butjust before he reached it, he died here by this mountain.” (Book 17, TheClassic of Mountains and Seas)

Thereis some confusion in the mythological accounts regarding the death of Kuafu.The first story is that he died of exhaustion while chasing after the sun. Thesecond story is that during the Battle of Zhuolu, the Yellow Emperor sent YingLong 应龙 to kill Chi You 蚩尤 and Kuafu, leading to theformation of the Huaxia ethnic group through their integration.

Letus clarify the relationship between these two “Kuafu” figures. The first“Kuafu” actually refers to “Gong Gong.” The story of “Kuafu Chasing the Sun”does not mean that Kuafu was pursuing the sun, but rather symbolises the warbetween the water god Gong Gong and the fire god Gaoyang-shi 高阳氏 Zhuanxu. Gong Gong, the water god, repeatedly attacked Zhuanxu with water, butthe water would evaporate each time the fierce sun came out. In the end, GongGong was exhausted to death. Therefore, the tale of “Kuafu Chasing the Sun” canbe interpreted as a retelling of the conflict between Zhuanxu and Gong Gong.

Drawingparallels with Norse mythology, we can interpret “Youzhou” as a reference tothe “North Pole” or “Ginnungagap.” The war between ice and fire wouldcorrespond to the conflict between the water god Gong Gong and the sun godZhuanxu. Following this conflict, the first giant ancestor, Ymir, was born. Ifwe equate Ymir with Yeming, born of Gong Gong and Hou Tu, we can see a similarpattern in these two mythologies.

InNorse mythology, Ymir is pivotal to the creation of the world, and his storyexemplifies the Norse cosmological cycle of creation, preservation, andeventual destruction. Ymir’s existence and death provided the materials fromwhich the gods fashioned the world, setting the stage for a universe defined byrepeated cycles of creation and annihilation. According to these myths, theworld will conclude with Ragnarök, a cataclysmic battle that will destroy theworld and its gods, only for it to be reborn anew. Similarly, in Chinesemythology, Yeming is said to have fathered the Twelve Months, symbolising thecyclical time order of a constantly renewing world. If we accept this view, thenature of time and space before Ragnarök would be drastically different fromour contemporary understanding of the world. This perspective underscores abroader mythological theme in which the fundamental structure of the universeundergoes periodic, radical transformations that radically alter the flow oftime and the nature of existence itself.

Thesecond “Kuafu,” who was killed by Ying Long at the behest of the Yellow Emperorduring the Battle of Zhuolu, is actually “Yeming,” the equivalent of “Ymir” inNorse mythology. Similarly, Norse legends tell of Odin and his brothers slayingYmir. This parallels the relationship of the Yellow Emperor, the Yan Emperor,and Chi You in Chinese mythology. However, it should be noted that the YellowEmperor, Yan Emperor, and Chiyou mentioned here are not the original ancestorsbut their descendants. The Yellow Emperor, known as Xuanyuan-shi 轩辕氏,came to the aid of the YanEmperor Shennong-shi in their battle against the alliance of Chi You andKuiwei-shi, another descendant of the Yan Emperor.

Theleader of Kuiwei-shi was Yeming. After the Battle of Zhuolu, Yu Wang 榆罔, the eighth descendantof the Yan Emperor Shennong-shi, abdicated in favour of the Yellow EmperorXuanyuan-shi, ushering in the era of unification for the Huaxia ethnic group.As for the origin of the name “Kuafu,” this researcher suggests a connectionwith the figure of “Boyi”伯夷 and the Norse gods“Buri.” According to “The Biography of Boyi” in the Records of the GrandHistorian, Boyi, whose surname was Jiang, was a person from the time of EmperorYao. He was a descendant of the Yan Emperor and the grandson of Gong Gong. IfBoyi is indeed the grandson of Gong Gong, it is reasonable to assume that hewill inherit some characteristics associated with water and snake bodies. Asrecorded in “The Basic Annals of the Five Emperors” of the Records of the GrandHistorian, Boyi lived during the time of Yao and was the fourteenth-generationdescendant of the Yan Emperor Shennong-shi and the grandson of Gong Gong. Heappears in mythology after the two Kuafu stories. “The Classic of RegionsWithin the Seas” of the Classic of Mountains and Seas also mentions Boyi,stating that “Boyi gave birth to the West Mountain,” which may refer to theSiyue-shi 四岳氏 (meaning “the FourMountains”), the mountain giants.

Basedon the preceding analysis, it can be deduced that the references to Yao andShun 舜 exiling Gong Gong toYouzhou do not pertain to the original Gong Gong. Instead, these referenceslikely indicate the various barbarian groups that descended from the Gong Gonglineage following their notable conflicts with the Zhuanxu clan. Thisinterpretation includes Boyi and his followers, who manifested their discontentwith the governance of the Yellow Emperor’s descendants, thereby perpetuatingongoing disturbances. From Zhuanxu to Yu 禹, the Gong Gong clans and their progeny were consistently identified astroublemakers, which may account for their lesser prominence in ancient Chinesemythology.

Thename Buri, a primordial figure in Norse mythology, appears in the historicalcontext of mediaeval Icelandic literature, particularly in the “Prose Edda.”This significant work, written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, is acrucial source for much of the knowledge we have today about Norse mythology.Snorri Sturluson, an Icelandic historian, poet, and politician, composed the“Prose Edda” to preserve the ancient myths and poetic traditions that were indanger of being lost due to the Christianization of Scandinavia. His work isdivided into various sections, each serving a different purpose. In the “ProseEdda,” Snorri provides a systematic and comprehensive retelling of the Norsemyths, from the creation of the world to its prophesied destruction (Ragnarök).

Thisresearcher suggests that Ragnarök corresponds to the “jueditiantong,” a periodmarked by a colossal war among the gods, leading to a definitive separationbetween deities and humans. This event symbolises the transition from an epochdominated by the gods to one ruled by humans.

Buri,as mentioned in the “Prose Edda,” is also a crucial figure in Norse cosmogony.According to the text, he was the first god, born from the salty blocks of icelicked by Audhumla, the primaeval cow. From Buri, the lineage of the Aesirdescends—the gods that include Odin, Thor, and others central to Norsemythology. Buri’s emergence signifies the beginning of the divine lineage andlays the foundation for the intricate interactions between the gods and othermythical beings in the ensuing sagas and tales.

Thehypothesis that the Aesir, the principal pantheon of gods in Norse mythology,may have had Asian origins has intrigued some scholars. However, it remains aspeculative theory that has yet to be widely accepted by mainstream historicalor mythological scholarship. Several vital arguments primarily support thistheory. Firstly, etymological and linguistic connections have been proposed,with researchers such as Polomé (1996) suggesting potential links between theNorse term “Aesir” and the ancient Sanskrit word “Asura,” indicating a possibleproto- religious connection between Norse and Indo-European cultures (Mallory& Adams 2006). Secondly, the narrative presented by Snorri Sturluson in the“Prose Edda,” which recounts the origin of Aesir from a place he identifies as“Troy” in Asia, is often interpreted as a creative adaptation of classicaltexts to enhance the dignity of Norse mythology, rather than a factual account(Clunies Ross 1994). Finally, while Indo-European groups share cultural andmythological themes stemming from their common linguistic roots, there is alack of direct archaeological or historical evidence specifically connectingthe Norse Aesir to Asian origins. Norse gods and their myths are betterunderstood as products of the Scandinavian cultural and historical context andits interactions with neighbouring cultures (Byock 2001). In summary, whilelinguistic and thematic parallels exist, the precise origins of the Aesirremain elusive and speculative.

A group of sculptures depicting Thor’s fight with

the giants by Carl Johan Bonnesen in Odense,Denmark

Inparallel, Norse mythology narrates the emergence of Buri, who was brought intoexistence through the action of a cow licking ice and salt, and whosubsequently fathered Borr. Borr, being the progeny of Buri, the progenitor ofgiants, inspires the alternative designation for “Kuafu” as “Bofu” 博父 or the “Giant Father” or the “BofuCountry” in “The Classic of Regions Beyond the Seas: The North” in the Classicsof Mountains and Sea. The appellation “Jufu” 举父 finds its roots in the Old Norse“Jötunn” or “Jötun,” terms that collectively denote “giants.” Consequently,“Boyi” is identified as a colossus, an offspring of the Yan Emperor, commandingthe Siyue-shi.

Froma mythological perspective, the rise of Confucianism in China is closely linkedto the transition from a theocratic governance structure to one that emphasiseshuman rights, signifying a significant shift in societal power dynamics. Duringthe theocratic era, a Daoist paradigm prevailed that incorporated deities,humans, and other entities into a unified cosmological framework that promotedharmony among heaven, earth, and humanity while emphasising the pursuit ofimmortality. The complexity of human societal structures was primarilyoverlooked during this period. However, historical events, including EmperorYao’s abdication in favour of Emperor Shun, marked a gradual shift towards agovernance model centred on human rights.

Duringthis transformative period, Confucianism emerged as a critical philosophicalmovement focused on improving human societal structures and actively promotingethical norms and propriety among the population. It emphasised the alignmentof human education with natural evolution, as encapsulated in the maxim fromthe Book of Changes: “Look at the ornamental observances of human society, andunderstand how the processes of transformation accomplish all under heaven” (观乎人文,以化成天下). This principle was reflected inindividual moral development and the broader construction of societal culture.

Centralto Confucian ideology is the concept of “hua” 化 (meaning “transformation” or “dissolution”), which signifies the integration ofeducational practices and evolutionary processes, and serves as a cornerstonein fostering harmonious interpersonal relationships. Unlike other philosophicaltraditions that may overlook natural dimensions, Confucianism, influenced byDaoist cosmology, recognises the cyclical nature of the cosmos and establishesa normative framework for life. This framework closely links human educationwith natural evolutionary processes and aims to achieve a harmoniouscoexistence between humans and nature.

Theterm “hua” carries profound etymological and philosophical implications,indicating the pervasive presence of transformation throughout the universe andhighlighting the interconnectedness and interactivity among all entities.Within the Confucian paradigm, “transformation” is imbued with significanthumanistic value, advocating for the attainment of societal harmony througheducational efforts.

Moreover,from a cultural standpoint, “hua” serves as a dynamic force in culturaltransmission and innovation, enabling cultures to continuously adapt tochanging societal contexts and ensuring the preservation and rejuvenation ofcultural heritage. Through the lens of “hua,” a deeper understanding ofcultural evolution is gained, capturing its essence and broader implications.

Therefore,“hua” is a multifaceted and intricate concept that plays a crucial role inConfucian thought. A thorough exploration of “hua” facilitates a comprehensiveunderstanding of the profound influence of Confucianism on societal developmentand provides a novel framework for examining the complexity and diversitywithin human societies.

Reflectingon ancient historical narratives, such as the tremendous prehistoric floodfollowed by millennia of societal rebuilding and eventual global conflicts,these events can be mythologically paralleled with the Norse Ragnarök or the Chinesebattle of Zhuanxu against Gong Gong, leading to “jueditiantong.” These globalconflicts represent pivotal moments in the fate of humanity.

TheConfucian approach to historical mythology aims to mitigate and diffusehistorical contradictions and conflicts that might otherwise provokeethno-nationalist tensions rather than foster contemporary ethical principles.By embracing the concept of “transformation,” Confucianism seeks to transformhistorical conflicts into catalysts for social progress, emphasising not onlyindividual moral refinement but also the overall harmony and stability ofsociety.

Inessence, the Confucian treatment of mythological history embodies a profoundhumanistic concern and a lofty societal ideal that strives to reconcilehistorical discord through transformative processes and promote the harmoniousadvancement of human societies. This transformative approach holds historicalsignificance and provides valuable insights for contemporary socialdevelopment. While immediate responses to conflicts may initially resist theConfucian pursuit of harmony, a longerterm and holistic perspective oftenreveals the enduring relevance of Confucian principles as they integratehistorical lessons with current circumstances and future aspirations, therebymaintaining a balance between the present state of humanity and the timelesslaws of the universe. This integration is rooted in the Daoist concept of“profound virtue,” which sets a standard for societal conduct and aspirations.

Theancient Chinese myth of “Kuafu Chasing the Sun” demonstrates how mythologicalnarratives can bridge historical gaps and adapt to evolving philosophicalcontexts. By examining the influence of Confucian values on interpretations ofthe Kuafu myth, the study argues that the myth serves as both a narrative and ametaphor for the transition from divine to human-centred governance,reminiscent of the celestial duel between Gong Gong and Zhuanxu.

Inthe Confucian reinterpretation, Kuafu is not merely an individual but representsthe entire Kuafu clan, challenging the narrow interpretations of the post-Handynasty. This perspective revives the ancient cosmological view that celebratesthe coexistence of deities and humans, centred on the mythical KunlunMountains.

Acomparative analysis of the Confucian-infused Kuafu narrative and the Norsemyth of Buri reveals symbolic resonances and thematic parallels that underscorea shared ancient worldview through cosmic battles and resolutions. Thisinterdisciplinary study highlights a shift towards anthropocentrism in mythicalnarratives, marking a crucial transition in historical consciousness, andexplores the cross-cultural influence of Confucianism in reinterpreting ancientnarratives.

EmbeddingConfucian values into the Kuafu narrative aligns with China’s intellectualevolution during the Qin and Han dynasties, which was influenced by Confucianphilosophy (Chen 2021). This adaptation emphasises order, morality, andpropriety, in contrast to the original portrayal of wild behaviour. While thisConfucianised narrative facilitates broader dissemination and acceptance,preserving the original cultural connotations and symbolic meanings isessential to maintaining the diversity and richness of cultural inheritance.

Criticalengagement with historical and cultural narratives is necessary to understandhow ancient stories can be preserved and adapted in light of contemporaryvalues and philosophical insights. In adapting the Kuafu story, emphasis wasplaced on Confucian values such as order, morality, and propriety, whichcontrasted sharply with the original tale’s depiction of wild and primalbehaviour. This reinterpreted narrative, in line with Confucian ideals like“Heaven thrives through perpetual motion, thus the exemplary person should consistentlystrive for self-improvement,” presents a version of Kuafu that not only retainsthe allure of the original myth but also resonates with the value orientationof Confucian culture, thus facilitating its broader dissemination andacceptance.

However,it is essential to acknowledge that the Confucianised narrative may havediluted some of the original cultural connotations and symbolic meanings of theKuafu story. Therefore, in inheriting and developing these ancient mythologicalnarratives, it is crucial to balance traditional Confucian values whilepreserving the original cultural elements of the myths to maintain thediversity and richness of the cultural inheritance. This approach encourages acritical engagement with historical and cultural narratives, and promotes anuanced understanding of how ancient stories can be preserved and adapted inlight of contemporary values and philosophical insights.

Continuingthe discussion on the nuanced interpretation of the Kuafu myth within aConfucian framework, it is essential to explore the broader implications ofsuch adaptations for understanding cultural and philosophical evolution. Thereinterpretation of Kuafu, influenced by Confucian thought, is an illustrativeexample of how mythology can reflect societal values and aspirations in ahistorically rich culture like China.

TheConfucianised narrative of Kuafu goes beyond adapting an ancient myth to fitcontemporary moral standards; it actively engages in the educational discourseof its time. Confucian philosophy emphasises the role of education incultivating moral virtues and societal harmony. By embedding these values intopopular myths, stories serve as tools for moral instruction and philosophicalreflection accessible to people from all walks of life.

TheKuafu story highlights themes of perseverance, moral integrity, and the humanendeavour to overcome natural limits. These themes resonate with the Confucianvirtue of self-improvement and the pursuit of an ethical life. Additionally,the myth underscores the importance of humility and the recognition of humanlimitations, as Kuafu’s pursuit ultimately leads to his demise, reminding us ofthe balance between ambition and acceptance of the natural order inDaoist-Confucian philosophy.

Beloware five aspects of the Confucianised Kuafu story:

(1)Integration of Confucian Principles

Theadaptation of the Kuafu narrative incorporates core Confucian values, such asorder, morality, and propriety, in sharp contrast to the portrayal of wild andprimitive behaviours in the original tale. This integration reflects adeliberate effort to infuse the myth with societal ideals that promotestructured and ethical conduct.

(2)Role in Moral Education

Thereimagined story of Kuafu goes beyond mere storytelling to become a tool formoral education, consistent with the focus of the Confucian philosophy onnurturing virtues and promoting societal harmony. This myth teaches listenersthe importance of ethical living and the benefits of a harmoniously orderedsociety.

(3)Promotion of Social Harmony

Indepicting Kuafu, the narrative emphasises the Confucian pursuit of socialharmony. Although Kuafu’s quest leads to his demise, it symbolicallyunderscores the aspiration for a balanced coexistence between humanity and thenatural world, reflecting a societal ideal deeply rooted in Confucian thought.

(4)Emphasis on Self-Improvement

Thereinterpretation strongly emphasises the Confucian virtues of self-improvementand constant endeavor. This aligns with the maxim “Heaven thrives throughperpetual motion, thus the exemplary person should consistently strive forself-improvement,” and promotes the idea that constant personal development isessential to one’s moral and spiritual growth.

(5)Acknowledgment of Human Limitations

Additionally,the revised narrative highlights the importance of recognising and acceptinghuman limitations. This theme is deeply intertwined with both Daoist andConfucian philosophies, which advocate for a balance between human ambition andthe acceptance of the natural limits imposed by the universe.

Theseaspects of the Confucianised reconstruction of Kuafu not only enrich thecultural pattern from which the myth is woven but also serve as a means ofimparting timeless lessons on virtue, humility, and the pursuit of harmony.

Themethodology employed in analysing the Kuafu myth involves a multidisciplinaryapproach incorporating literary criticism, philosophical discourse analysis,and cultural anthropology. This approach comprehensively explains how mythsevolve and are influenced by changing cultural, political, and philosophicallandscapes.

Keythemes in the Kuafu mythology include perseverance, moral integrity, and theefforts of humanity to overcome natural limitations, which resonate with theConfucian virtues of self-improvement and the pursuit of a moral life. Inaddition, mythology emphasises the importance of humility and acknowledgementof human limitations, as Kuafu’s pursuit ultimately led to his demise, servingas a reminder of the balance between ambition and acceptance of the naturalorder emphasised in both Daoist and Confucian philosophies (Wang & Yin2022).

Historically,the state’s involvement in literature and scholarship has significantlyinfluenced the interpretation and dissemination of myths. During the Qin andHan dynasties, the establishment of a Confucian education system and therevision of classical texts under state directives influenced how myths likeKuafu were recorded and taught, supporting the ideological goals of the rulingclass and promoting social cohesion (Li 2023).

Lookingforward, studying mythological narratives such as Kuafu in the context ofConfucian thought offers avenues for future research. This includes exploringhow these myths are received and interpreted in modern Chinese culture,conducting comparative studies of mythological adaptations across differentdynasties, and understanding the impact of these myths on contemporary socialand ethical discussions. Additionally, studying the transformations of thesemyths can provide insights into cultural globalisation and theinternationalisation of Asian philosophical and ethical systems.

Inconclusion, the Confucianisation of the Kuafu narrative highlights therecontextualisation of historical and mythological narratives to reflectcontemporary values and philosophical insights. This study sheds light on mythadaptation processes by examining the integration of Confucian values into theKuafu myth. It enhances our understanding of the role of mythology inhistorical consciousness and philosophical development, enriching ourcomprehension of human culture and the interplay between myth, philosophy, andsociety.

Thisstudy concludes with key findings that highlight the synthesis of the Kuafumyth with Confucian values, revealing a complex layering of ancient narrativesthrough a Confucian lens. This exploration underscores the transculturalnarrative bridges between Chinese and Norse mythologies and offers a profoundunderstanding of mythological reinterpretation across cultures. The theoreticaland cultural implications of this study illuminate the dynamic interplaybetween mythology and philosophical thought, showcasing the potential of mythsto transcend cultural and temporal boundaries. This study advocates for abroader engagement with comparative mythology and transcultural studies forfuture research, encouraging further exploration of the interconnectedness ofglobal mythological narratives and their philosophical underpinnings. Thisdirection promises to enrich our understanding of ancient myths and foster amore nuanced appreciation of the shared human condition reflected in thesetimeless stories.