The Significance of the Chinese Wedding Ceremony: A Cultural and Historical Perspective

Issuing time:2025-01-06 15:30Author:Zhan BeibeiSource:Thinking Through Confucius

InAugust 1872, British journalist William Simpson (1823-1899) traveled to Chinato cover the wedding of Emperor Tongzhi of China (reigned 1861-1875) for the Illustrated London News. Simpson, whohad previously reported on the Crimean War and the frontlines of theFranco-Prussian War, was now on an “expedition” to China. The Illustrated London News, established in1842, was the world’s first news magazine to use illustrations. By the 1860s,it had a larger circulation than any other newspaper of the time, with areadership mostly composed of the middle class.

Photo of William Simpson

Asa special correspondent for the News,Simpson traveled day and night for two months to arrive in Beijing just a fewdays before the wedding of Emperor Tongzhi. He sent prints and written reportsback to British readers, vividly describing how he hid in a shop to observe themidnight wedding of Emperor Tongzhi. Although his interpretation of the imperialwedding was partially based on hearsay due to the lack of authoritativesources, the illustrated reports undoubtedly provided British readers with arare glimpse of exoticism.

Theevent was promptly reported by Chinese newspapers. On October 30, 1872, the Shen Bao published an article titled“Translation of Western News: A Record of the Grand Wedding Procession.” Thearticle reported that “Westerners have used photography to capture the grandwedding procession and sent pictures to Europe.” It also described the weddingas “a spectacle never seen before by both Chinese and foreigners, a dreambeyond the reach of ordinary people.” Clearly, Simpson’s reports did notreflect the admiration of the “ordinary people,” as claimed by the Shen Bao. However, the News published a series of reports onthe Chinese imperial wedding in its issues on December 21 and 28 of 1872 andJanuary 4 and 11 of 1873, indicating that this cross-continental reporting wasindeed popular among readers.

AlthoughSimpson’s reports were significant, it is important to note that most Chineseemperors and imperial relatives’ weddings followed the Confucian tradition. Awedding ceremony is a significant ritual that marks the beginning of a newphase in the lives of the bride and groom, as well as their families. Weddingsare important in cultures around the world, and China is no exception. TheChinese wedding ceremony has been shaped by Confucian traditions for centuries,and its significance is evident in the attention paid to it by various dynastiesthroughout Chinese history. This article aims to examine the significance ofthe Chinese wedding ceremony from cultural and historical perspectives. In thefollowing sections, we will explore the role of Confucianism in shaping thewedding ceremony, its various components, and its historical evolution overtime.

William Simpson’s sketch of the weddingceremony of Emperor Tongzhi in the IllustratedLondon News (1872), specifically the processionwith canopies

TheRole of Confucianism in Shaping the Wedding Ceremony

Confucianism,a philosophical and ethical system originating in China during the Spring andAutumn period (770- 476 BC), had a significant impact on Chinese culture andsociety, including the wedding ceremony. The Confucian traditions emphasize theimportance of social hierarchy and the role of rituals in establishing socialorder. The character li 礼 in classical Chinese is anideograph connoting the performance and presentation of sacrifices to theprimarily ancestral spirits at an altar to them and can also be regarded assomething (e.g., rules, regulations, etc.) to be relied on or to put things inorder. The term was first used during the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BC) to referto the names of rituals and sacrifices. By the middle of the Spring and Autumnperiod, li began to indicate formalconduct and social grammar. At the end of this period, early Confuciansexpanded the concept of li, whichinfluenced the formation of thought in the Xunzi,authored by the Warring States period philosopher Xunzi 荀子 (313-238 BC). The Xunzi, in turn, laid the foundations ofthe political institutions and social theories of the Han dynasty, providing abasic political-social model for the following dynasties. The term li in Chinese history encompasses a widerange of concepts, making it challenging for later scholars to find acorresponding translation in the English language. Various proposals, such as“propriety” and “rules of proper conduct,” have been made. Until recently, li has been translated as “ritual,”“rites,” “customs,” “etiquette,” etc. However, in traditional Chinese studies,each of these English terms is considered a narrower concept compared to li. It should be noted that ProfessorRoger Ames and Henry Rosemont have chosen to render it as “observing ritualpropriety” in their philosophical translations of the Confucian classics.

Inthe Liji礼记 (also known as the Book of Rites, or the Record of Rituals), a chapter titled “Hun Yi” 昏义 ( “ The Meaning of Marriage”)states that retrospectively, the purpose of the marriage ceremony is to “ensurethe provision of services in the ancestral temple,” while prospectively, itaims to “secure the continuance of the family line,” therefore, “the exemplarypersons place a great value on it.” The relevance of this practice in relationto political hierarchy has also been explained, that the marriage ceremony isserved to “establish the distinction between man and woman, and the appropriaterelationship to be maintained between husband and wife. From the distinctionbetween man and woman came the appropriateness between husband and wife. Fromthat came the affection between father and son,” and ultimately, “theappropriateness between ruler and minister.”

Thesignificance of li is evident in theimportance attached to rituals and ceremonies, particularly the weddingceremony, in establishing social order and identity. The wedding ceremony isconsidered “the root of all ceremonies” 礼之本也, and plays a crucial role in all ceremonial practices. The six ceremonies (liuli六礼), sharing food and wine (gonglao hejin 共牢合卺), and meeting thein-laws (jian jiugu见舅姑) are essential parts of thewedding ceremony, as they reflect the significance of the bride’s separationfrom her family during various identity changes in traditional Chinesemarriage.

Couples dressed in Han-style costume participatingin a group wedding ceremony

TheComponents of the Chinese Wedding Ceremony

Thesix ceremonies, sharing food and wine, and meeting the in-laws, are essentialparts of the Chinese wedding ceremony, each with its own significance.

Thesix ceremonies depict the process from the groom’s initial delegation to thebride’s family to express their intentions (nacai 纳采), inquiring about thebride’s name and relevant personal information (wenming问名), obtaining auspiciousdivination results (naji纳吉), presenting valuable engagementgifts to the bride’s family (nazheng纳征), setting the wedding date (qingqi 请期), and the groom personally receiving the bride on the wedding day (qinying亲迎). The bride’s departure from her family on the wedding day marks the end ofthe process.

Wedding scene depicted in The Qingming Scroll (courtpainting from the Qing dynasty, 1736)

TheConfucian tradition places great emphasis on the six ceremonies, which wereoften used as a basis for describing local wedding customs in gazetteers. Suchstress on the six ceremonies reflects the importance of the bride’s separationfrom her family during various identity changes in traditional Chinese marriage.

Sharingfood and wine is also an essential part of the wedding ceremony. Gonglao共牢(sometimes tonglao同牢) refers to the act of sharing ameal together, while hejin合卺 is a type of gourd used as a cup. Hejin involves splitting a gourd in halfand using it to serve wine, symbolizing unity, equality, and intimacy. Thisritual of sharing food and wine symbolizes the unity of the bride and groom andtheir families.

Meetingthe in-laws is the final part of the wedding ceremony. The meeting takes placeon the day after the wedding, and the groom’s parents welcome the bride intotheir family. This symbolizes the integration of the bride into the groom’sfamily.

TheHistorical Evolution of the Chinese Wedding Ceremony

TheChinese wedding ceremony has evolved over time, reflecting changes in Chinesesociety and culture. During the imperial period in China, most dynasties hadministers who compiled the official rituals of the dynasty based on Confucianclassics. The earliest recorded set of official rituals can be traced back tothe Han dynasty, when Shusun Tong 叔孙通(d. 194 BC) established the court rituals for Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang 刘邦 (256-195 BC). When LiuBang first established his rule, court officials were unfamiliar with properetiquette, leading to disorderly behavior such as excessive drinking andfighting. To establish court ritual, Shusun Tong summoned scholars from thestate of Lu (modern Shandong province). After its implementation, allofficials, including vassal kings, showed fear and respect. Liu remarked,“Today I truly understand the importance of being an emperor.” In this example,the emperor’s dignity was achieved through ritual, highlighting the significantrole and powerful function of rituals in establishing social order.

Duringthe Eastern Han dynasty, Cao Bao 曹豹(d. 196) compiled a system of rituals for various occasions, includingweddings, that distinguished between the emperor and the commoners, indicatinga differentiated design of wedding rituals in the Han dynasty. The ritual codesof the two Han dynasties have not been well-preserved and are lost. The Jinli晋礼 (Rituals of the Jin Dynasty), writtenby Xun Yi 荀顗 (d. 274) and others, is considered the first official ritual code with a moremature ritual system. The Jin dynasty (266-420) established a system of fiveritual categories that became the standard for later generations. Thesecategories include auspicious rituals, mourning rituals, military rituals,guest rituals, and festive rituals. Generally speaking, sacrificial rituals areclassified as auspicious rituals, while wedding rituals fall under the categoryof festive rituals. The rituals pertaining to guests and visitors areclassified as guest rituals, whereas those associated with military affairs aredesignated as military rituals. Lastly, funeral observances are consideredmourning rituals. The Jinli waspassed down during the Northern and Southern dynasties (420-589), serving asthe basis for two sets of official rituals commissioned in the Tang dynasty.The Datang Kaiyuanli大唐开元礼 (Rituals of the Kaiyuan Period) was compiled later and is consideredto be the earliest extant official ritual code. Subsequently, each dynasty,including the Song (960-1279), Ming (1368-1644), and Qing dynasties(1616-1912), developed its own revised versions of official ritual codes.

Xiao Song et al., Datang Kaiyuanli, Vol. I

Themain characteristic of official rituals is a distinct hierarchy among differentsocial classes, with certain rituals directly associated with one’s identity,using canonical ritual texts as models. For example, the Liji specifies in its “WangZhi” 王制 (“Royal Regulations”)chapter that “the son of Heaven sacrificed to Heaven and Earth; the dukes ofthe states to the land and grain; great officers offered the five sacrifices.”

Theserituals vary depending on the sacrificial objects and are directly related tothe identity of the performers. For instance, offering sacrifices to Heaven andEarth is a ritual exclusively reserved for the emperor and cannot be performedby people of lower status. However, a wedding ceremony is a widely practicedritual that involves various social classes; therefore, it is important toreflect differences in identity in wedding ceremonies. Ritual classics such asthe Liji, the Yili仪礼, and the Zhouli周礼, emphasize hierarchical levels in rituals, but unfortunately, they do notprovide clear ceremonial templates for weddings of different levels. The Yili gives a detailed account of themarriage ceremony of shi士, which is exclusively applicableto scholar-officials. In contrast, the other two texts only briefly mention thevariations in wedding levels without providing a comprehensive explanation ofthe overall ceremonial distinctions. In other words, ritual officials in latergenerations faced a scarcity of classical references to guide them inestablishing differences in wedding levels. Therefore, they mainly relied onChapter 2 of the Yili, “Shi Hunli” 士昏礼 (“The Marriage Ceremony of theScholar-Official”), as a framework and made necessary adaptations to designwedding ceremonies for people with different levels of identity. This chapterprimarily focuses on the wedding ceremony of scholar-officials, whilehigher-level imperial weddings during different periods and the weddings ofcommon people after the Song dynasty were mostly developed by ritual officialsbased on their understanding of the spirit of ritual. These developments tookinto consideration the prevailing concept of social hierarchy at the time, aswell as incorporating input from the emperor and other ministers. Additionalsteps were introduced to the main structure of the wedding ceremony in order toaccommodate specific circumstances.

Variablesin Chinese Wedding Ceremonies

Accordingto Song dynasty records, Emperor Zhezong of Song (1077-1100) planned to hold agrand wedding. However, a Confucian scholar named Lü Zhengxian 吕正献 (1018-1089) objected to the use ofmusic in the ceremony. This objection is consistent with the Confuciantradition that prohibits the use of music in weddings. Some suggest that thisprohibition is based on the yinyang阴阳 concept in Confucianism. Weddingsare traditionally associated with yin,while music is considered yang.According to the yinyang theory, yin rituals should not be accompanied by yang music. Others suggest that theabsence of music at weddings symbolizes the importance of continuing the familylineage and honoring one’s parents. Alternative explanations for theprohibition of musical accompaniment, such as attributing it to the historicalpractice of marriage by capture, are not universally accepted. The Emperor’sgrandmother, Empress Dowager Xuanren (1032-1093), questioned, “In ordinaryhouseholds, musicians are still employed for weddings. Why can’t the imperial familyuse them?” The Emperor’s mother, Empress Dowager Qincheng (1047-1102), agreedand suggested, “Just make our own arrangements.”

Portrait of Emperor Zhezong of the Song dynasty(1077-1100)

Conclusion

Thewedding ceremony is a vital part of Chinese culture and has been influenced bythe Confucian tradition for centuries. Its importance is evident through theattention it has received from various dynasties throughout Chinese history.The six ceremonies, sharing food and wine, and meeting the in-laws areessential components of the ceremony. These components hold such profoundsignificance that they reflect the bride’s separation from her family invarious identity changes within traditional Chinese marriage. Furthermore, therelevance of li can be observed inits emphasis on rituals and ceremonies, including the wedding ceremony itself,which plays a crucial role in establishing social order and identity. Despitethe challenges of translating li intoWestern languages, people from diverse cultures and backgrounds recognize andappreciate the universal significance of Chinese wedding ceremonies.

Theevolution of the Chinese wedding ceremony over time reflects changes in Chinesesociety and culture. For example, during the Tang dynasty, weddings began toincorporate Daoist elements, such as talismans and incense burning. During theSong dynasty, weddings became more elaborate and were seen as opportunities todisplay wealth and social status. Wedding processions, with the groom riding ona horse and the bride in a palanquin, became popular during this period.

Inmodern times, some aspects of the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony havebeen modified. For instance, it is now common for the bride and groom toexchange rings during the ceremony, a practice that was not traditionally partof a Chinese wedding ceremony. Additionally, contemporary Chinese couples maychoose to hold their wedding ceremony in a Western-style chapel or hotelballroom rather than in a traditional Chinese venue.

Despitethese changes, the Chinese wedding ceremony remains an important aspect ofChinese culture. It is still viewed as a way of establishing social order andidentity, and many Chinese people today recognize the importance of the sixceremonies and other rituals. While the wedding ceremony may continue toevolve, it will always be an integral part of Chinese culture and history.

作者简介：

Zhan Beibei, AssociateProfessor in the History Department of Yuelu Academy at Hunan University,Director of the Overseas Academic Exchange Center and the Digital HumanitiesCenter at Hunan University. Shegraduated from Xi’an JiaotongUniversity with a Bachelor’s degree inComputer Science and Technology. She went on to obtain a Master’s degree in Vision, Image Processing, andVirtual Environments from University College London, followed by a Ph.D. inComputer Vision from Kingston University (with a joint scholarship from BT, aprominent British telecommunications company). Shethen shifted her focus to Sinology,earning both her M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in this field from the School ofOriental and African Studies, University of London. She has contributed severalarticles to both domestic and international journals, most notably the T’oung Pao.

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