The Development of Confucianism as a Religion in Indonesia

According to Report No. 22, titled “Religion and Its Disciples Throughout the World,” published by the United Nations in 1956, the number of Confucian disciples worldwide reached 300,290,500, ranking fourth after Catholicism, Islam, and Hinduism. Lewis Hodous (1967) stated, “Confucianism was established as the state religion by Emperor Wudi (140-87 BCE) and retained this position till 1912.” Scientific literature indicates that the influence of Confucius’ teachings in Indonesia started at the end of the prehistoric period. This is evidenced by the discovery of cultural remains in several regions of Indonesia. According to researcher Djohan Effendi (1978), the arrival of Chinese immigrants during the Hinduism period inevitablly introduced elements of Confucianism, which enriched the religious world of Indonesia.

Based on the 1971 census conducted by the Statistics Bureau of Indonesia, approximately 0.8% of the population identified themselves as Confucian adherents, which would correspond to an estimated count of around one million people. The growth of the Confucian religion in Indonesia has taken place along with the development of other religions in the country, including Islam, Christian Protestantism, Christian Catholicism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. It is noteworthy that none of these religions originated within Indonesia itself. Despite occasional frictions observed in certain regions, adherents of these diverse religions have coexisted harmoniously throughout history without any recorded instances of interreligious conflicts.

Allow me to give a brief overview of the historical development of Confucianism as a religion and its institutions in Indonesia.

Historians have discovered that by the end of the prehistoric period, an ancient Malayan population lived in Indo-China (300 BCE). These people adopted a Neolithic culture from their Chinese neighbors and developed it into their distinctive Dongsong (Thongsan or Tengswa) culture. A prehistoric object, an axe, was unearthed in Indo-China and Indonesia but not in India or Asia Minor; however, many were found in China, Siberia, and Eastern Europe. This finding demonstrates a longstanding historical connection between China and Indonesia (directly or indirectly through Indo-China or the Malacca Cape) ever since the prehistoric period. The connection was so intense that the exchange of economic, social, and cultural values occurred naturally and simultaneously. Over time, this relationship has evolved into a perfect blend of cultures.

The blend of cultures took place smoothly, indicating a warm reception for the arrival of the Indian people. This blend of Dongson culture and the native culture became the dominant cultural framework of Indonesia with the arrival of the Indian people with their religious and cultural systems rooted in Hinduism and Buddhism. Furthermore, this intermingling of cultures was further enriched by the arrival of Chinese immigrants with their religious practices and cultural traditions. Confucianism, established as the state religion in China in 136 BCE, was introduced to Indonesia by Chinese immigrants during this period, spreading Confucian religious and cultural systems. Therefore, the coming-andgoing relationship between Chinese and Indonesians has not engendered any significant physical or psychological challenges. Thus, the arrival of Fa Hian (in 414) and I Tsing (in 672 and 685) in Indonesia explains the dispersion of Chinese people across various regions of Indonesia, spanning from Malacca to the vicinity of Ternate in Maluku Island in the following decades. From the beginning of their settlement, a process of adaptation has taken place between the Chinese and their new dwelling place, wherein they assimilated into the life of the local people and pursued various occupations. Some became merchants in coastal towns like Sriwijaya, Banten, Cirebon, Demak, Tuban, Giri in Banyuwangi, Makassar, and Ternate. Some became farmers in West Kalimantan (Borneo Island), Bangka, and Belitung, while others became fishermen in Bagan Siapiapi and neighboring regions. Additionally, some established themselves as carpenters in Singkawang, Pontianak, and nearby areas. By then, only a few isolated incidents, such as conflicts with Majapahit soldiers in Puni or battles against the Majapahit navy in Sriwijaya, had disrupted the otherwise harmonious relationship between Chinese immigrants and local communities. In Kotara Manawadhana Castra, a book on the rules of law, it is stated that the fines for Chinese currency are as follows: “... If a ksatria (knight) disturbed a Brahmin, the knight should be fined for 200. If a waisya disturbed a Brahmin, the waisya should be fined for 500.” Up until now, in the Hindu temples of Bali Island, kepeng coins (gobok) are still used as a part of ritual and worship necessities. The Dayaks tribe in the rural areas of Kalimantan seem to have adopted certain aspects of Confucianism, exemplified by their use of flowers and fruits as offerings. Therefore, a discernible correlation exists among various beliefs and religions. It can be argued that the Chinese immigrants, with their religious beliefs rooted in Confucianism, encountered no significant obstacles and did not cause any physical or psychological distortions; rather, there was a seamless assimilation like the flow of water with the local people, fostering an exchange of values and cultures while blending elements of religious observance and ceremonial practices.

As mentioned in the previous pages, the advent of Confucianism in Indonesia coincided with the arrival of adventurers who traversed the seas, engaged in trade activities, and established settlements across a number of islands in Indonesia. Along with the development of the Confucian religion, institutions such as the Ash-Home for ancestor veneration and worship were established in temples all over the country. For instance, the Thian Ho Kiong temple was established in Makassar, South Sulawesi Island in 1688, followed by the construction of, the Ban Hing Kiong temple in Manado in 1819 and the Kong Tik Su Ash-Home in Manado in 1839. Other temples were discovered in Ancol Jakarta, Tuban (East Java Island), Rembang, and Lasem (Central Java Island). In Surabaya, the capital city of East Java Island, the Boen Tjhian Soe temple was built in 1833. Renovated in 1906, this temple was renamed Boen Bio (wenmiao 文庙 ) Church by the Dutch, or “orde kerk van Confucius” in the Dutch language. Presently serving as a place of worship for Confucian adherents, it is registered as a Confucian temple under the Confucian Religious Council (Majelis Agama Khonghucu Indonesia, hereafter MAKIN) of Surabaya.

Around 1729, a Confucius Institute, a kind of pesantren, was established in Jakarta and named Bing Sing Su Wan, meaning “educational institute for enlightenment.” In 1886, The Legend of Confucius, written by Lie Kim Hok in Melayu, was published in Jakarta. Additionally, Thai Hak (Daxue 大学 , or the Great Learning) and Tiong Yong (Zhongyong 中庸 , or the Focusing the Familiar), written by Tan Ging Tiong in old Indonesian language, Bahasa Melayu, were issued in Sukabumi city in West Java province. In 1897, a sacred book entitled Soe Sie (Sishu 四书, or the Four Books) Pek Boen, written by Mr. Njio Tjoen Ean, was published in Ambon City, Maluku Island. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a significant event occurred on March 17, 1900, when twenty Chinese leaders founded a Confucian social organization called Tiong Hoa Hwee Koan (Zhonghua Huiguan 中华会馆 , hereafter THHK). THHK’s main objective was to purify the practice of Confucianism and eliminate syncretism in its religious teachings. This can be seen in their meticulous rituals and ceremonies for occasions such as funerals and weddings. According to Leo Suryadinata (2002), the THHK Articles explicitly state that its goal is “to promote the Chinese culture as much as possible according to the principles of Confucius while maintaining innocence and politeness, as well as to develop Chinese people’s knowledge of letters and languages.”

Khong Kauw Hwee was officially established in 1918 in Solo, Central Java Island, and then spread to other cities in Indonesia, such as Bandung, Bogor, Ciamis, Tasikmalaya (West Java Island), Malang (East Java Island). In 1923, a congress was held in Yogyakarta, Central Java Island where it was agreed to form a national central organization called Khong Kauw Tjong Hwee. The headquarters of the organization was established in Bandung, the now capital city of West Java Province. Later on, Khong Kauw Tjong Hwee was named the Supreme Council of the Khonghucu (Confucian) Religion in Indonesia (Yinni Kongjiao Zonghui 印尼孔教总会), or in Indonesian, Majelis Tinggi Agama Khonghucu Indonesia (hereafter MATAKIN).

With the outbreak of World War II in 1942 and the arrival of Japanese troops in Indonesia, the Khong Kauw Hwee faced significant challenges in conducting their religious activities due to the threat of Japanese soldiers who could arrest anyone suspected of opposing the Japanese occupation. Many places of worship also accepted refugees without discrimination. The core teaching of Confucianism emphasizes the idea that “all within the four seas are brothers 四海之内皆兄弟也 ,” which was advocated during the Japanese occupation. Therefore, a strong sense of Indonesian unity began to take root among Confucian leaders and adherents. A conference to discuss the potential reactivation of Khong Kauw Hwee activities was successfully held in Solo from December 11 to 12, 1954, with the participation of Confucian leaders. The conference was chaired by Dr. Sardjono. On April 16, 1955, another conference was held in Solo where, Khong Kauw Hwee renamed itself as Perkumpulan (association) Khong Chiao Hui of Indonesia (hereafter PKCHI). In a congress held in Solo from July 14 to 16, 1961, crucial decisions were made, including ensuring uniformity in religious rituals, appointing Mr. Thio Tjoan Tek, chairman of the association, and Dr. Mustopo from Bandung to meet with the Minister of Religious Affairs to advocate for Confucianism as a religion. In 1965, President Sukarno of the Republic of Indonesia issued a decree prohibiting parties, sects, or organizations deviating from the core teachings of Islam, Christianity, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism practiced in Indonesia.

When President Soeharto came to power in Indonesia in 1967, efforts were made to eradicate Chinese culture in a systematic and planned manner. This was implemented through Presidential Instruction No. 14 of 1967, which specifically targeted the religious beliefs and customs of the Chinese community. The existence of Chinese culture rooted in Confucian teachings, which has contributed to and enriched the cultural heritage of Indonesia, was severely threatened. For about three decades, Confucianism as an integral part of the ethnic Chinese community in Indonesia endured severe challenges including school closures and prohibitions on the use of Chinese characters or language, and, in 1977, with the elimination of Confucian religious subjects in schools, students who identified as adherents to Confucianism were compelled to study alternative religious subjects and often faced pressure to adopt different faiths altogether. According to Jayadi Damanik (2003), all the policies implemented under the Soeharto government towards Confucian adherents can be considered as state-sponsored cultural genocide.

The political climate in Indonesia during the Soeharto era was not conducive to the development of Confucianism. Despite this, MATAKIN could not be dissolved as the existence of religion is protected by the 1945 Constitution and Pancasila (the state ideology of Indonesia, the Five Principles). However, MATAKIN faced limitations due to restrictions on public gatherings imposed by President Soeharto’s Decree No. 14 of 1967. In an attempt to suppress Confucian religious activities, the Soeharto regime declared in 1978 that Confucianism was not a religion. Nevertheless, leaders from MATAKIN persisted in their peaceful resistance against the government.

From 1993 to 2002, during the MATAKIN era led by the author (Chandra Setiawan), concerted efforts were made to restore the civil rights of Confucian practitioners by collaborating with Muslim leaders to urge the government to ensure equal treatment of Confucians compared to other religious groups, particularly with regard to their civil liberties. Chandra Setiawan was elected as a member of the Indonesian National Commission of Human Rights (Komnas HAM RI) from 2002 to 2007. Through this institution, Chandra Setiawan, supported by all members, consistently advocated for the restoration of the civil rights of Confucian adherents in Indonesia.

In mid-July 1998, the newly appointed Minister of Religious Affairs, Professor Malik Fajar, cordially welcomed the MATAKIN leaders to the Office of the Ministry of Religious Affairs and explicitly affirmed that the government officially recognized the presence and significance of Confucian religion.

With his help, MATAKIN successfully organized a national congress, and he also provided a venue at the Hajj Dormitory complex in Jakarta for this purpose. The Minister of Religion dispatched Amidhan Shaberah, an esteemed member of his expert staff, to deliver a speech.

Although there was some light, the recognition of civil rights remained elusive until the B.J. Habibi government concluded in 1999. Regrettably, representatives of the Confucian community were denied participation in the People’s Consultative Assembly in the 1999 elections by the Election Commission.

In 1999, Abdurrahman Wahid (Gus Dur) was elected president by the People’s Consultative Assembly. Notably, Gus Dur once revealed his Chinese ancestry to a journalist. Being well aware of the challenges faced by Confucians in Indonesia, it is fortunate that he was good friends with the MATAKIN leaders before assuming office as the President of the Republic of Indonesia. Therefore, when the MATAKIN leaders (Bingky Irawan, Budi Santoso Tanuwibowo, and Chandra Setiawan) met him at his official residence and invited him to attend the Kongzili (Chinese New Year) celebration, he readily accepted. He even suggested organizing two separate celebrations in Jakarta and Surabaya. Surprisingly, upon learning that President Instruction No. 14 of 1967 was still in effect and preventing his attendance, he replied that he would withdraw it. Several weeks after the meeting, President Gus Dur issued Presidential Decree No. 6 of 2000, revoking President Soeharto’s Instruction No. 14 of 1967, which had imposed restrictions on the religious practices and customs of the Chinese people. As President, Gus Dur attended the New Year celebration organized by MATAKIN, which brought together religious leaders from various faiths in Indonesia, including Islam, Christianity, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, and Buddhism, as well as members of the Chinese community, both those who followed Confucianism and those who practice other religions.

During Gus Dur’s presidency in Indonesia, the case against the Civil Registry Office regarding the marriage of Budi and Lany, which had been dismissed by the State Administrative Court, was again discussed. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Budi and Lany, and ordered the Surabaya Civil Registry Office to register their marriage under the Confucian religious affiliation.

Under the leadership of Gus Dur, the Kongzili was designated as an optional holiday. During Megawati Soekarnoputri’s presidency in Indonesia, the Kongzili was officially designated as one of the national religious holidays for Confucian adherents and Chinese people in Indonesia, to be celebrated together with all Indonesian citizens.

Under the leadership of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, the President of the Republic of Indonesia in 2006, Confucians were granted equal civil rights, and the Ministry of Religious Affairs established a special division called the Confucian Guidance and Education Center. The Center plays a critical role in facilitating capacitybuilding initiatives such as training programs for teachers, youth, and Confucian clergy. It is also responsible for publishing various sacred books including the Four Books, the Shijing, the Shujing, the Yijing, the Liji, as well as religious and character books tailored for preschoolers up to university students. All books are published in Indonesian, with the translation from Chinese to Indonesian done by MATAKIN’s team of experts.

The preamble of the MATAKIN Statute affirms that Confucianism, based on the Four Books and the Five Classics, considers xing 性(natural human propensities) as tianming 天命 (the mandate of Heaven), guiding one’s dao 道 (way-making). Confucius’ teachings encourage people to cultivate their moral character, love others, and become authoritatively and consummately human. Confucians have a sacred obligation to nurture human beings so that they can become a junzi 君子 (exemplary person), characterized by faith, virtue, compassion, and a commitment to truth, justice, and responsibility. They should have courage based on sensitivity and social concern, live decently, uphold the values of truth, morality, and ethics, and strive to be trustworthy in everyday life. To achieve this noble goal, the Supreme Council of the Confucian Religion in Indonesia (MATAKIN), the highest forum for Confucian followers and institutions in Indonesia, was formed. Therefore, MATAKIN has a moral obligation to promote the teachings of Confucius in Indonesia. This will enable individuals to become reformers who are always responsive and sincere, and actively contribute to society, the nation, and the state. The ultimate goal is to achieve world harmony (Datong Shijie 大同世界).

MATAKIN has official offices in over 20 provinces across Indonesia, with approximately 250 branches in different cities and towns. We provide a comprehensive range of educational services including teacher provision, lecturer support, training programs, seminars, and academic resources. Most Indonesian Confucian societies offer regular courses such as Sunday schools and study groups dedicated to the study of Confucian religious doctrines and the classics. They also publish magazines such as Gentrika and Genta Rohani, websites, and online journals. All Confucians in Indonesia are required to participate in worships and rituals, as this is considered an integral aspect of one’s religious life. Worships include paying homage to tian and Confucius. Praying together in the Confucius temple is not only a duty but also serves the purpose of improving human relationships and providing moral and spiritual education, as the religious elements of Confucianism are the basis of ethical humanism (Lasiyo, 2012).

The Houw Sek (1984) argued that each religion in Indonesia has developed unique characteristics that diverge from its country of origin. Agama Khonghucu (Confucian religion) in Indonesia is different from Confucianism in China or other countries. Therefore, he suggested that Confucian adherents in Indonesia should adapt the religion to align with Indonesian characteristics. He added that the primary function of Indonesian Confucianism in Pancasila is to provide new insights or a correct understanding of the belief in the one and only God through practices like meditation, dao, or wuwei 无为 (noncoercive acting), as cited by Lasiyo (2012). The Confucian religion in Indonesia asserts itself as monotheistic by emphasizing tian as the one supreme God. In Pancasila, the supreme being is referred to as Tuhan (God) without providing a specific definition for this concept. The interpretation of God varies among different religions or schools of belief (Lasiyo, 2012).

Indonesian Confucians are able to practice both Confucianism and Pancasila, allowing them to be both religious followers and good citizens. The implementation of Pancasila alongside the doctrine of Confucianism has not posed any difficulties due to their similarities. In fact, Sukarno formulated the national Pancasila philosophy in 1945, which welcomed the Chinese people born in the territories of Indonesia during its nationbuilding process (Somers 1965, pp. 186-187), as cited by Ivana Prazic (2016). Therefore, Confucians in Indonesia can coexist peacefully with those who hold different religions and beliefs.

Chandra Setiawan, Senior Lecturer of President University, Chairman of the Supervisory Board, President University Foundation; Member of the Priesthood Council of the Supreme Council of Confucian Religion in Indonesia; Vice-Chairman of the Board of the General Assembly of the International Confucian Association (ICA), Adjunct Professor at Qufu Normal University. He has been promoting Confucius’ teaching in Indonesia since 1977. He is a noteworthy leader of Confucianism in Indonesia. He has received an appreciation certificate from the Confucian Academy of Hong kong.